Saffron | Saffron Health benefits, Description, Cultivation and Uses
Saffron
The flower of the Crocus sativus,
sometimes called the saffron crocus, is the source of the spice known as
saffron. The vibrant red stigma and styles, sometimes known as
"threads," are harvested and dried for use primarily as food flavour
and colouring. The most expensive spice in the world by weight has long been
saffron. Saffron is thought to have originated in Iran, despite the fact that
certain questions concerning its origin still exist. However, Greece and
Mesopotamia have also been suggested as the possible regions of origin of this
plant. The Saffron crocus slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was
later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
The phytochemicals picrocrocin
and safranal are responsible for saffron's flavour and iodoform- or hay-like
aroma. Additionally, it includes the carotenoid pigment crocin, which gives
textiles and dishes a deep golden-yellow tint. Its recorded history is attested
in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical treatise, and it has been traded and
used for thousands of years. In the 21st century, Iran produces some 90% of the
world's total of saffron. Saffron is the priciest spice in the world, costing
at least US$5,000 per kg.
Origin
The origin of the English term
saffron is somewhat unclear. It might stem from the 12th-century Old French
term safran, which comes from the Latin word safranum, from the Arabic zafaran,
which comes from the Persian word zarparan, meaning "gold strung"
(implying either the golden stamens of the flower or the golden colour it
creates when used as a flavor).
Some doubts remain about the
origin of saffron, but it is believed that it originated in Iran. Greece and
Mesopotamia, however, have also been mentioned as potential origin areas.
According to Harold McGee, it was domesticated during the Bronze Age in or
close to Greece. The wild saffron plant Crocus cartwrightianus, commonly known
as C. sativus, may be a triploid variety of that plant. The Saffron crocus
slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of
North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
Description
The domesticated saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, is a perennial plant with fall flowers that is not found in nature. It likely descended from the Crocus cartwrightianus, often known as "wild saffron," which blooms in the autumn and was first seen in Crete or Central Asia. Other potential sources include C. thomasii and C. pallasii. It slowly spread across most of Eurasia as a genetic monomorphic clone.
It is a sterile triploid form,
which implies that each specimen's genetic makeup consists of three homologous
sets of chromosomes; C. sativus has eight chromosomal bodies per set, for a
total of 24. Being sterile, the purple flowers of C. sativus fail to produce
viable seeds; hence, reproduction hinges on human assistance: clusters of
corms, underground, bulb-like, starch-storing organs, must be dug up, divided,
and replanted. A corm can produce up to ten "cormlets" by vegetative
division during the course of one season, each of which can develop into a new
plant the following year. The compact corms are small, brown globules that can
grow up to 5 cm in diameter, have a flat base, and are covered in what is known
as a "corm tunic"—a dense mat of parallel fibres. Additionally, corms
have thin, net-like vertical fibres that extend up to 5 cm above the plant's
nectar.
The plant sprouts white in color,
non-photosynthetic leaves known as cataphylls. These membrane-like structures
cover and protect 5 to 11 true leaves as they bud and develop on the crocus
flower. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves,
which either expand after the flowers have opened ("hysteranthous")
or do so simultaneously with their blooming ("synanthous"). C. Some
people believe that sativus cataphylls appear before blooming when the plant is
irrigated relatively early in the growing season. Its pedicels, or flower
stems, which are known as the floral axes or flower-bearing structures, carry
bracteoles, or specialised leaves. The plant aestivates in the spring and then
sends up its genuine leaves, which can grow to be up to 40 cm (16 in) long. Its
wonderfully coloured blossoms, which range from a light pastel shade of lilac
to a deeper and more striated mauve, only bloom in October, after the majority
of other flowering plants have dispersed their seeds. The blossoms have a
fragrant sweetness, like honey. The plants have up to four flowers and are
20–30 cm tall when they flower. Each flower produces a three-pronged style that
is between 25 and 30 mm long. A brilliant crimson stigma that acts as the
distal end of a carpel terminates each prong.
Cultivation
Unknown in the wild, the saffron crocus is most likely descended from Crocus cartwrightianus. It is a triploid that is "self-incompatible" and male sterile; it goes through aberrant meiosis and is therefore unable to reproduce sexually on its own; all vegetative multiplication is done manually by "dividing and setting" a starter clone, or by interspecific hybridization.
Crocus sativus grows on semi-arid soils with hot, dry summer breezes, such as the Mediterranean maquis, an ecotype that superficially resembles the North American chaparral. It can, however, withstand cold winters, withstanding frosts as low as 10 °C and brief periods of snow cover. Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages 1,000–1,500 mm; saffron-growing regions in Greece (500 mm or 20 in annually) and Spain (400 mm) are far drier than the main cultivating Iranian regions. This is made possible by the timing of the region's wet seasons; ideal conditions are for heavy spring rains and dry summers. Saffron harvests are increased by rain just before flowering; rainy or cold weather during flowering encourages illness and lowers yields. Crops are harmed by prolonged dampness and heat, and corms are dug up by rabbits, rodents, and birds, who also inflict damage. Other dangers include nematodes, leaf rusts, and corm rot. But because Bacillus subtilis inoculation accelerates corm growth and boosts stigma biomass yield, growers might benefit in some way from it.
The plants grow best in full
sunlight; they do badly in shaded environments. The best fields are those that
slope toward the sun (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere). In the
Northern Hemisphere, planting occurs primarily in June; corms are inserted 7–15
cm (3-6 in) deep; their roots, stems, and leaves can form between October and
February. Critical elements in affecting yields are planting depth, corm
spacing, and climate. Mother corms planted deeper yield higher-quality saffron,
though they form fewer flower buds than daughter corms. Italian growers
optimise thread yield by planting 15 cm
deep and in rows 2–3 cm apart; depths of 8–10 cm optimise flower and corm production. Growers
from Greece, Morocco, and Spain use certain depths and spacings that are
appropriate for their environments.
Sativus sativus prefers friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-calcareous soils with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via the application of some 20–30 tonnes per hectare (9–13 short tonnes per acre) of manure. Corms were then planted after which no more manure was applied. The corms go into dormancy over the summer, then in the early autumn, they start to bud and put up their slender leaves. They only blossom in the middle of fall. Harvests must be completed swiftly because flowers quickly wilt throughout the day after blooming at dawn. Within a span of one to two weeks, all plants blossom. After extraction, stigmas are promptly dried and, ideally, packed in airtight containers.
Harvesting
Sargol saffron, the strongest Iranian grade. The high retail value of saffron is maintained in world markets because of labor-intensive harvesting methods, which require some 440,000 hand-picked saffron stigmas per kilogramme (200,000 stigmas/lb) – equivalently, 150,000 crocus flowers per kilogramme (70,000 flowers/lb). The labour required to pluck 150,000 flowers takes 40 hours.
A freshly harvested crocus flower typically generates 30 mg of fresh saffron or 7 mg of dried saffron; about 150 flowers yield 1 g of dry saffron threads; 450 g of flowers are required to produce 12 g of dried saffron; and only 13 g/kg of dried spice is produced from fresh saffron.
Phytochemistry and sensory
properties
The majority of the 28 volatile
and aroma-producing chemicals in saffron are ketones and aldehydes. Safranal,
the primary molecule responsible for the saffron scent 4-ketoisophorone, and
dihydrooxophorone are its key aroma-active constituents. Additionally, saffron
includes nonvolatile phytochemicals, the most physiologically active of which
are crocetin and its glycoside crocein, as well as the carotenoids zeaxanthin,
lycopene, and other - and -carotenes. Crocetin is absorbed more quickly than
the other carotenoids because it is smaller and more water-soluble.
Saffron's predominant source of -crocin is responsible for its yellow-orange hue. Trans-crocetin di-(-D-gentiobiosyl) ester, also known as 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid, is the crocin in question (IUPAC). This indicates that the digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin is what gives saffron its distinctive scent. The hydrophilic carotenoids known as crocins are a group of crocetin mono- or diglycosyl polyene esters. Crocetin is a hydrophobic, oil-soluble conjugated polyene dicarboxylic acid. A substance that is also water soluble is produced when crocetin is esterified with two sugars called gentiobioses. The resultant -crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may make up more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses in -crocin make it perfect for colouring non-fatty, water-based meals like rice dishes.
The strong flavour of saffron is
due to the bitter glucoside picrocrocin. Safranal, an aldehyde submolecule with
the systematic name 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carbaldehyde, and a
carbohydrate combine to form picrocrocin (C16H26O7; 4-(-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carbaldehyde).
It can make up to 4% of dry saffron and has insecticidal and pesticidal
qualities. Picrocrocin is the glycoside of the terpene aldehyde safranal and is
a shortened form of the carotenoid zeaxanthin formed via oxidative cleavage.
Following harvest, when saffron
is dried, heat and enzymatic activity break picrocrocin to produce D-glucose
and a free safranal molecule. The volatile oil safranal is mostly responsible
for the saffron's characteristic scent. Safranal is less bitter than
picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in
some samples. The smell of 2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one, a
second component of the saffron aroma, has been compared to that of dried hay.
Despite being present in lower concentrations than safranal, chemists found
that this is the most potent component of saffron's aroma. Dry saffron is
extremely sensitive to pH variations and deteriorates chemically quickly in the
presence of light and oxidising chemicals. In order to reduce interaction with
atmospheric oxygen, it must be kept in airtight containers. Saffron can
withstand heat a little better.
Types of Saffron
The numerous saffron crocus
cultivars produce distinct thread types that are frequently locally scattered.
Spanish varieties (not varieties in the botanical sense), notably those sold
under the trade names "Spanish Superior" and "Creme," are
rated according to government-imposed standards and are typically mellower in
colour, flavour, and aroma. Spanish and Italian variants are a little stronger.
Due to its particularly superior colour and flavour, With a three-century
tradition of growing of a saffron known as Krokos Kozanis, Greece is a saffron
producer that began exporting to the United States in 2017.
Trade saffron costs between
$1,100 and $11,000 per kilogramme at wholesale and retail prices. In 1974, the
average retail cost per kilogramme was $2,200 in Western nations.
Some cultivars may be considered to be of "premium" quality by consumers. High safranal and crocin content, a distinctive thread shape, an unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour are the characteristics of the "Aquila" saffron, also known as zafferano dell'Aquila, which is only grown on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of the Abruzzo region of Italy, close to L'Aquila. A Dominican friar from the time of the Inquisition in Spain brought it to Italy for the first time. The largest saffron crop in Italy is located in San Gavino Monreale, Sardinia, where it is produced on 40 hectares and accounts for 60% of the country's output. This saffron also has an extremely high concentration of crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal.
One of the most challenging for consumers to find is the "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron of Kashmir (Crocus sativus 'Cashmirianus'). [Reference needed] Its exorbitant pricing outside are a result of Kashmir's repeated droughts, pestilences, and crop failures as well as an Indian export restriction. The dark maroon-purple colour of Kashmiri saffron, which is among the darkest in the world, makes it easy to identify. The Indian government granted a geographical indication to Kashmir Valley saffron in 2020.
Nearly all saffron is grown in a region stretching from Kashmir in the east to Spain in the west. 250 t (250,000 kg) were manufactured globally in 2014. Iran is the source of 90–93% of the world's production, much of which is exported.
Saffron Production
Greece and Afghanistan had a
surge in cultivation in the twenty-first century. India and Morocco were
supplemental producers. Saffron is grown extensively in Basilicata, Sardegna,
and Tuscany, although it is mostly produced in Southern Italy, particularly in
the Abruzzo region (especially in San Gimignano). Only a few locations, such
the Swiss village of Mund, whose annual output is only a few kilogrammes,
continue the laborious harvest in Austria, Germany, and Switzerland due to
prohibitively high labour costs and an abundance of Iranian imports. Australia
(primarily the state of Tasmania), Canada, Central Africa, China, Egypt, some
of England, France, Israel, Mexico, New Zealand, Sweden (Gotland), Turkey
(primarily in and around the town of Safranbolu), and the United States are
among the countries where saffron is produced on a small scale (California and
Pennsylvania). With a three-century tradition of growing of a saffron known as
Krokos Kozanis, Greece is a saffron producer that began exporting to the United
States in 2017.
Trade saffron costs between
$1,100 and $11,000 per kilogramme at wholesale and retail prices. In 1974, the
average retail cost per kilogramme was $2,200 in Western nations. In February
2013, a retail bottle containing 1.7 g could be purchased for $16.26, or the
equivalent of $9,560/kg, or as little as about $4,400/kg in larger quantities. There are between
150,000 and 440,000 threads per kilogramme. Vivid crimson coloration, slight
moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of
fresh saffron.
Saffron Uses
Traditional medicine has long used saffron as a herb. Saffron has also been used in perfumes and as a fabric dye, especially in China and India. In India, it is employed for religious purposes.
Connoisseurs frequently compare
the perfume of saffron to metallic honey with grassy or hay-like undertones,
and they also describe the flavour as sweet and hay-like. Additionally, saffron
gives meals a brilliant yellow-orange colour. Persian, Indian, European, and
Arab cuisines all frequently use saffron. Confectioneries and liquors also
often include saffron. Saffron is used in dishes ranging from the jewelled rice
and khoresh of Iran, the Milanese risotto of Italy, the paella of Spain, the
bouillabaisse of France, and the biryani with various meat accompaniments in
South Asia. The creation of the Golden Ham, a priceless dry-cured ham prepared
with saffron from San Gimignano, is one of the most prestigious uses for
saffron. Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius, sometimes known as "Portuguese
saffron" or "açafro"), annatto, and turmeric are common
alternatives to saffron (Curcuma longa). Due of its yellow-orange hue, turmeric
was frequently referred to as "Indian saffron" in Medieval Europe.
Saffron Nutrition
65% of dried saffron is composed
of carbs, 6% of fat, 11% of protein (table), and 12% of water. Manganese makes
up 29 percent of the Daily Value in one tablespoon (2 grammes; a far bigger
amount than is expected to be consumed in regular use), but the level of other
micronutrients is quite low.
Saffron Toxicity
Saffron is not hazardous to
humans in amounts less than 1.5 g, but it can become toxic in amounts larger
than 5 g. Dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea are symptoms of mild
toxicity; however, at larger doses, spontaneous bleeding and a decreased
platelet count are possible side effects.
Storage
If saffron is not kept in an
airtight, cool, and dark environment, it will not go bad but will start to lose
its flavour after six months. The flavour can be preserved in freezer storage
for up to two years.
Research
In 2017, research was conducted
on the genes and transcription factors that make up the carotenoid synthesis
pathway that gives saffron its distinctive colour, flavour, and aroma.
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